Immunohistochemical localization of P2Y12 purinoceptors in the rat carotid body.

The present study investigated the localization of the adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP)-selective P2Y12 purinoceptors in the rat carotid body using multilabeling immunofluorescence. Punctate immunoreactive products for P2Y12 were distributed in chemoreceptive type I cells immunoreactive to vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) or dopamine beta-hydroxylase, but not in S100B-immunoreactive glial-like type II cells. P2Y12 immunoreactivity was localized in cell clusters containing VNUT-immunoreactive type I cells surrounded by the perinuclear cytoplasm and cytoplasmic processes of type II cells immunoreactive for ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) and NTPDase3, which hydrolyze extracellular nucleotide tri- and/or di-phosphates. In ATP bioluminescence assays using carotid bodies, the degradation of extracellular ATP was attenuated in the presence of the selective NTPDases inhibitor ARL67156, suggesting ATP-degrading activity by NTPDases in the tissue. These results suggest that ATP released from type I cells is degraded into ADP and adenosine 5'-monophosphate by NTPDases expressed in type II cells, and that ADP modulates type I cells via P2Y12 purinoceptors.

A convenient fluorimetry-based degranulation assay using RBL-2H3 cells.

Type I hypersensitivity is triggered by mast cell degranulation, a stimulus-induced exocytosis of preformed secretory granules (SGs) containing various inflammatory mediators. The degree of degranulation is generally expressed as a percentage of secretory granule markers (such as ß-hexosaminidase and histamine) released into the external solution, and considerable time and labor are required for the quantification of markers in both the supernatants and cell lysates. In this study, we developed a simple fluorimetry-based degranulation assay using rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) mast cells. During degranulation, the styryl dye FM1-43 in the external solution fluorescently labeled the newly exocytosed SGs, whose increase in intensity was successively measured using a fluorescence microplate reader. In addition to the rate of ß-hexosaminidase secretion, the cellular FM1-43 intensity successfully represented the degree and kinetics of degranulation under various conditions, suggesting that this method facilitates multi-sample and/or multi-time-point analyses required for screening substances regulating mast cell degranulation.

Distribution of P2X3 purinoceptor-immunoreactive sensory nerve endings in the carotid body of Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata).

In the carotid body of laboratory rodents, adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-mediated transmission is regarded as critical for transmission from chemoreceptor type I cells to P2X3 purinoceptor-expressing sensory nerve endings. The present study investigated the distribution of P2X3-immunoreactive sensory nerve endings in the carotid body of the adult male Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata) using multilabeling immunofluorescence. Immunoreactivity for P2X3 was detected in nerve endings associated with chemoreceptor type I cells immunoreactive for synaptophysin. Spherical or flattened terminal parts of P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings were in close apposition to the perinuclear cytoplasm of synaptophysin-immunoreactive type I cells. Immunoreactivity for ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2), which hydrolyzes extracellular ATP, was localized in the cell body and cytoplasmic processes of S100B-immunoreactive cells. NTPDase2-immunoreactive cells surrounded P2X3-immunoreactive terminal parts and synaptophysin-immunoreactive type I cells, but did not intrude into attachment surfaces between terminal parts and type I cells. These results suggest ATP-mediated transmission between type I cells and sensory nerve endings in the carotid body of the Japanese monkey, as well as those of rodents.

ADP-mediated Modulation of Intracellular Calcium Responses in Chromaffin Cells: The Role of Ectonucleoside Triphosphate Diphosphohydrolase 2 on Rat Adrenal Medulla Function.

The present study investigated the localization and the adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-degrading function of the plasma membrane-bound ecto-nucleotidase, ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2), in the rat adrenal medulla. The effect of ATP degradation product, adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP), on carbachol (CCh)-induced intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) responses in adrenal chromaffin cells was examined using calcium imaging. NTPDase2-immunoreactive cells were distributed between chromaffin cells. NTPDase2-immunoreactive cells were immunoreactive for glial fibrillary acidic protein and S100B, suggesting that they were sustentacular cells. NTPDase2-immunoreactive cells surrounded chromaffin cells immunoreactive for vesicular nucleotide transporter and P2Y12 ADP-selective purinoceptors. In ATP bioluminescence assays using adrenal medullary slices, ATP was rapidly degraded and its degradation was attenuated by the NTPDase inhibitors sodium polyoxotungstate (POM-1) and 6-N, N-diethyl-d-ß,γ-dibromomethylene ATP (ARL67156). ADP inhibited CCh-induced [Ca2+]i increases of chromaffin cells in adrenal medullary slices. The inhibition of CCh-induced [Ca2+]i increases by ADP was blocked by the P2Y12 purinoceptor antagonist AZD1283. CCh-induced [Ca2+]i increases were also inhibited by the P2Y1, P2Y12, and P2Y13 purinoceptor agonist 2-methylthioadenosine diphosphate trisodium (2MeSADP), in combination with the P2Y1 purinoceptor antagonist MRS2179. These results suggest that sustentacular cells express NTPDase2 to degrade ATP released from adrenal chromaffin cells, and ADP modulates the excitability of chromaffin cells via P2Y12 purinoceptors to regulate catecholamine release during preganglionic sympathetic stimuli. (J Histochem Cytochem 72: 41-60, 2024).

Suitability of Polymyxin B as a Mucosal Adjuvant for Intranasal Influenza and COVID-19 Vaccines.

Polymyxin B (PMB) is an antibiotic that exhibits mucosal adjuvanticity for ovalbumin (OVA), which enhances the immune response in the mucosal compartments of mice. Frequent breakthrough infections of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants indicate that the IgA antibody levels elicited by the mRNA vaccines in the mucosal tissues were insufficient for the prophylaxis of this infection. It remains unknown whether PMB exhibits mucosal adjuvanticity for antigens other than OVA. This study investigated the adjuvanticity of PMB for the virus proteins, hemagglutinin (HA) of influenza A virus, and the S1 subunit and S protein of SARS-CoV-2. BALB/c mice immunized either intranasally or subcutaneously with these antigens alone or in combination with PMB were examined, and the antigen-specific antibodies were quantified. PMB substantially increased the production of antigen-specific IgA antibodies in mucosal secretions and IgG antibodies in plasma, indicating its adjuvanticity for both HA and S proteins. This study also revealed that the PMB-virus antigen complex diameter is crucial for the induction of mucosal immunity. No detrimental effects were observed on the nasal mucosa or olfactory bulb. These findings highlight the potential of PMB as a safe candidate for intranasal vaccination to induce mucosal IgA antibodies for prophylaxis against mucosally transmitted infections.

In situ hybridization analysis of odorant receptor expression in the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta.

The turtle olfactory organ consists of upper (UCE) and lower (LCE) chamber epithelium, which send axons to the ventral and dorsal portions of the olfactory bulbs, respectively. Generally, the UCE is associated with glands and contains ciliated olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), while the LCE is devoid of glands and contains microvillous ORNs. However, the olfactory organ of the pig-nosed turtle Carettochelys insculpta appears to be a single olfactory system morphologically: there are no associated glands; ciliated ORNs are distributed throughout the olfactory organ; and the olfactory bulb is not divided into ventral and dorsal portions. In this study, we analyzed the expression of odorant receptors (ORs), the major olfactory receptors in turtles, in the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ, via in situ hybridization. Of 690 ORs, 375 were classified as class I and 315 as class II. Some class II ORs were expressed predominantly in the posterior dorsomedial walls of the nasal cavity, while other class II ORs and all class I ORs examined were expressed in the remaining region. These results suggest that the pig-nosed turtle olfactory organ can be divided into two regions according to the expression of ORs.

Three-dimensional architecture of the subepithelial corpuscular nerve ending in the rat epiglottis reconstructed by array tomography with scanning electron microscopy.

In the rat laryngeal mucosa, subepithelial corpuscular nerve endings, called laminar nerve endings, are distributed in the epiglottis and arytenoid region and are activated by the pressure changes of the laryngeal cavity. They are also suggested to play a role in efferent regulation because of secretory vesicles in the axoplasm. In the present study, the laminar nerve endings in the rat laryngeal mucosa were analyzed by 3D reconstruction from serial ultrathin sections in addition to immunohistochemistry for synapsin 1. In the light microscopy, synapsin 1-immunoreactive flattened or bulbous terminal parts of the laminar endings were also immunoreactive with VGLUT1, and were surrounded by S100- or S100B-immunoreactive Schwann cells and vimentin-immunoreactive fibroblasts. In the electron microscopy, 3D reconstruction views showed that laminar endings were composed of flattened terminal parts sized 2-5 µm in longitudinal length, overlapping in three to five multiple layers. The terminal parts of the endings were incompletely wrapped by flat cytoplasmic processes of the Schwann cells. In addition, the fibroblast network surrounded the complex of nerve endings and the Schwann cells. Several terminal parts entered through the basement membrane into the epithelial layer and attached to the basal epithelial cells, suggesting that interaction between epithelial cells and laminar nerve endings plays an important role in sensing the pressure changes in the laryngeal cavity. Secretory vesicles were unevenly distributed throughout the terminal part of the laminar nerve endings. The secretory vesicles were frequently observed in the peripheral limb of the terminal parts. It suggests that the laminar nerve endings in the larynx may release glutamate to maintain continuous discharge during the stretching of the laryngeal mucosa.

Expression patterns of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of turtle embryos.

Many tetrapod vertebrates have two distinct olfactory organs, the olfactory epithelium (OE) and vomeronasal organ (VNO). In turtles, the olfactory organ consists of two types of sensory epithelia, the upper chamber epithelium (UCE; corresponding to the OE) and the lower chamber epithelium (LCE; corresponding to the VNO). In many turtle species, the UCE contains ciliated olfactory receptor cells (ORCs) and the LCE contains microvillous ORCs. To date, several transcription factors involved in the development of the OE and VNO have been identified in mammals. Fez family zinc-finger protein 1 and 2 (Fezf1 and 2) are expressed in the OE and VNO, respectively, of mouse embryos, and are involved in the development and maintenance of ORCs. B-cell lymphoma/leukemia 11B (Bcl11b) is expressed in the mouse embryo OE except the dorsomedial parts of the nasal cavity, and regulates the expression of odorant receptors in the ORCs. In this study, we examined the expression of Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in the olfactory organs of embryos in three turtle species, Pelodiscus sinensis, Trachemys scripta elegans, and Centrochelys sulcata, to evaluate their involvement in the development of reptile olfactory organs. In all three turtle species, Bcl11b was expressed in the UCE, Fezf2 in the LCE, and Fezf1 in both the UCE and LCE. These results imply that the roles of the transcription factors Fezf1, Fezf2, and Bcl11b in olfactory organ development are conserved among mammals and turtles.

3-Iodothyronamine, a trace amine-associated receptor agonist, regulates intracellular Ca2+ increases via CaMK II through Epac2 in rat cerebral arterioles.

Trace amines (TAs) in the nervous system bind to TA-associated receptors (TAARs) and are involved in the regulation of monoaminergic functions. Among TAAR subtypes, TAAR1 has been implicated in the development of neurological disorders, such as schizophrenia. The present study investigated the effects of the TAAR1 agonist, 3-iodothyronamine (T1AM) on cerebral arterioles using fluctuations in the intracellular concentration of Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) as an index of contractile responses. In cerebral arterioles, most of the TAAR agonists did not increase [Ca2+]i, while only T1AM elevated [Ca2+]i in vascular smooth muscle cells. This increase involved extracellular Ca2+ influx through T-type Ca2+ channels and inositol trisphosphate- and ryanodine-receptor-mediated Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. The inhibition of the cAMP sensor, exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac) 2, and calmodulin kinase (CaMK) II strongly inhibited Ca2+ elevations. The present study revealed that T1AM acted not only on the TAAR1 receptor as previously suggested, but also on other G-protein coupled receptors and/or signal transduction systems to increase intracellular Ca2+ in cerebral arteriole smooth muscle cells. These results suggest that when using T1AM in clinical practice, attention should be paid to the early rise in blood pressure.

Immunohistochemical analysis of glutamatergic and serotonergic signaling pathways in chemosensory cell clusters in the pharynx and larynx of rats.

The present study examined cellular components and the localization of vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) 1 and 2 and serotonin (5-HT) in chemosensory cell clusters in the rat pharynx and larynx. Triple immunolabeling for guanine nucleotide-binding protein G (t), subunit ⍺3 (GNAT3) and nucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2 (NTPDase2) with synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1) revealed NTPDase2-immunoreactive type I-like cells in addition to GNAT3-immunoreactive type II-like and Syt1-immunoreactive type III-like cells in pharyngolaryngeal chemosensory cell clusters. Therefore, these clusters appear to comprise similar cell types to those in the lingual taste buds with slight morphological modifications. An immunofluorescence analysis of VGLUT1 or VGLUT2 and GNAT3 with P2X3 purinoceptors revealed that VGLUTs co-localized to P2X3-immunoreactive spherical nerve terminals closely associated with GNAT3-immunoreactive type II-like cells. Moreover, triple immunolabeling for Syt1/synaptosomal-associated protein, 25 kDa (SNAP25) and P2X3 with VGLUT1 or VGLUT2 revealed punctate immunoreactive products for VGLUT1 and VGLUT2 within P2X3-immunoreactive flat axon terminals wrapped around Syt1/SNAP25-immunoreactive type III-like cells. The afferent nerve fibers innervating cell clusters may contain glutamate and release it by exocytosis. On the other hand, immunoreactive products for 5-HT and dopa decarboxylase were detected in Syt1-immunoreactive cells, indicating the release of 5-HT by these cells. The present results suggest that chemosensory cell clusters in the pharynx and larynx may be modulated by intrinsic glutamate and 5-HT.

Immunohistochemical distribution of Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II subunits in the rat carotid body.

Carotid body (CB) activity stimulated by a lower partial oxygen pressure in rats is enhanced by exposure to chronic intermittent hypoxia. However, the mechanisms that modulate CB activity remain unclear. In the present study, the expression and distribution of one of the candidate molecules to modulate reactivity, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) were examined in the rat CB using reverse transcriptional polymerase chain reaction and immunofluorescence with isoform-specific antibodies. CaMKIIγ and CaMKIIδ were distributed in CB chemoreceptor cells, and exhibited intense immunoreactivity in dopamine ß-hydroxylase-positive chemoreceptor cells. CaMKIIß and CaMKIIγ were distributed in sensory nerve endings attached to chemoreceptor cells of the CB. In the petrosal ganglion, immunoreactivities for CaMKIIα, CaMKIIß, CaMKIIγ, and CaMKIIδ were detected in the perinuclear region of ganglion cells. The present results indicate that CaMKIIγ and CaMKIIδ in chemoreceptor cells and CaMKIIß and CaMKIIγ in sensory nerve endings enhanced reciprocal synaptic transmission, i.e., noradrenaline and ATP for cells to neurons and glutamate for neurons to cells.

Immunolocalization of vesicular glutamate transporter 2 and exocytosis-related proteins in afferent nerve endings innervating taste buds in the rat incisive papilla.

The present study aimed to investigate the immunolocalization of vesicular glutamate transporter (VGLUT) 1 and 2, and proteins associated with exocytosis, i.e., core components of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor complex (synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa, syntaxin 1, and vesicle-associated membrane protein 2) and synaptotagmin-1 (Syt1), in incisive papillary taste buds of rats using double-indirect immunofluorescence. No VGLUT1 immunoreactivity was observed, whereas VGLUT2-immunoreactive punctate products were closely associated with guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(t) subunit α3-immmunoreactive cells in taste buds. VGLUT2 was immunolocalized in P2X3 purinoceptor-expressing afferent nerve endings. Synaptosomal-associated protein of 25 kDa, syntaxin 1, and vesicle-associated membrane protein 2 were immunolocalized in nerve endings containing VGLUT2-immunoreactive products as well as a few cells in taste buds. VGLUT2 was co-immunolocalized in some intragemmal nerve endings immunoreactive for Syt1, a calcium sensor implicated in vesicle membrane fusion. The present results suggest that afferent nerve endings innervating incisive taste buds release glutamate by exocytosis to modulate taste cell function.

Distribution of proteins for synaptic release in nerve endings associated with the trachealis muscle of rats.

The immunohistochemical localization of proteins for synaptic release was examined in smooth muscle-associated sensory nerve endings using whole-mount preparations of the rat trachea. Plant-like smooth muscle-associated nerve endings with immunoreactivity for Na+-K+-ATPase, α3-subunit were identified in the trachealis muscle. VGLUT1, synapsin1, t-SNARE proteins (SNAP25 and syntaxin1), v-SNARE proteins (VAMP1 and VAMP2), and a presynaptic active zone-related protein (piccolo) were detected in the terminal parts of these endings. These results suggest that smooth muscle-associated nerve endings secrete glutamate to modulate sensorimotor functions in the lung deflation reflex.

Immunohistochemical localization of vesicular nucleotide transporter in small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells of the rat superior cervical ganglion.

Our previous study reported that a part of small intensely fluorescent (SIF) cells in the rat superior cervical ganglion were innervated by P2X3 purinoceptor-expressing glossopharyngeal sensory nerve endings, suggesting the occurrence of adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP)-mediated transmission between them. The present study investigated the immunolocalization of vesicular nucleotide transporter (VNUT) in SIF cells of the superior cervical ganglion in male Wistar rats. VNUT was immunohistochemically localized in tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive SIF cells and sympathetic postganglionic neurons, but not in a few SIF cells with immunoreactivity for dopamine beta-hydroxylase. P2X3-immunoreactive ramified nerve endings formed flat leaf-like or spherical terminal parts to surround some VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells, but not other VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells attached to ganglionic neurons. VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells contained bassoon-immunoreactive products at the contacting surface of P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings. Immunoreactivity for ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2, which hydrolyzes extracellular ATP, was observed in S100B-immunoreactive satellite glial cells surrounding VNUT-immunoreactive SIF cells, but not in the attachment surfaces between SIF cells and nerve endings with P2X3 immunoreactivity. The present results suggest that SIF cells release ATP by exocytosis to modulate the excitability of sensory nerve endings and postganglionic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion.

Effects of CO2 on time-dependent changes in cardiorespiratory functions under sustained hypoxia.

Hypercapnia in addition to hypoxia affects the mammalian cardiorespiratory system and has been suggested to exert its effects on cardiorespiratory function by slightly different mechanisms to hypoxia. In the present study, we examined cardiorespiratory changes in urethane-anesthetized rats under hypocapnic (Hypo, 10% O2), isocapnic (Iso, 10% O2 and 4% CO2), and hypercapnic (Hyper, 10% O2 and 8% CO2) hypoxia for 2 h to clarify the effects of CO2 on sustained hypoxia-induced cardiorespiratory responses. Respiratory frequency increased the most in Hypo and tidal volume in Hyper. Minute ventilation, a product of respiratory frequency and tidal volume, increased the most in the latter group. Regarding cardiovascular variables during the hypoxic exposure period, heart rate and mean blood pressure both markedly decreased in Hypo. However, decreases in these parameters were small in Iso, and both increased over the pre-exposure level in Hyper. The present results suggest that CO2 interferes with the hypoxia-activated neural pathway via another pathway under sustained exposure to hypoxia.

Morphology and chemical characteristics of taste buds associated with P2X3-immunoreactive afferent nerve endings in the rat incisive papilla.

The present study investigated the cellular components and afferent innervations of taste buds in the rat incisive papilla by immunohistochemistry using confocal scanning laser microscopy. Taste buds containing guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(t), subunit α3 (GNAT3)-imunoreactive cells were densely distributed in the lateral wall of incisive papilla forming the opening of nasoincisor ducts. GNAT3-immunoreactive cells in the taste buds were slender in shape and the tips of apical processes gathered at one point at the surface of the epithelium. The number of taste buds was 56.8 ± 4.5 in the incisive papilla. The incisive taste buds also contained ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase 2-immunoreactive cells and synaptotagmin-1-immunoreactive cells in addition to GNAT3-immunoreactive cells. Furthermore, GNAT3-immunoreactive cells were immunoreactive to taste transduction molecules such as phospholipase C, ß2-subunit, and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, type 3. P2X3-immunoreactive subepithelial nerve fibers intruded into the taste buds and terminated with hederiform or calix-like nerve endings attached to GNAT3-immunoreactive cells and synaptosomal-associated protein, 25 kDa-immunoreactive cells. Some P2X3-immunoreactive endings were also weakly immunoreactive for P2X2. Furthermore, a retrograde tracing method using fast blue dye indicated that most of the P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings originated from the geniculate ganglia (GG) of the facial nerve. These results suggest that incisive taste buds are morphologically and cellularly homologous to lingual taste buds and are innervated by P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings derived from the GG. The incisive papilla may be the palatal taste papilla that transmits chemosensory information in the oral cavity to the GG via P2X3-immunoreactive afferent nerve endings.

Immunohistochemical distribution of proteins involved in glutamate release in subepithelial sensory nerve endings of rat epiglottis.

To elucidate the efferent functions of sensory nerve endings, the distribution of calretinin and vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) in laryngeal laminar nerve endings and the immunohistochemical distribution of proteins associated with synaptic vesicle release, i.e., t-SNARE (SNAP25 and syntaxin 1), v-SNARE (VAMP1 and VAMP2), synaptotagmin 1 (Syt1), bassoon, and piccolo, were examined. Subepithelial laminar nerve endings immunoreactive for Na+-K+-ATPase α3-subunit (NKAα3) were largely distributed in the whole-mount preparation of the epiglottic mucosa, and several endings were also immunoreactive for calretinin. VGLUT1 immunoreactivity was observed within terminal part near the outline of the small processes of NKAα3-immunoreactive nerve ending. SNAP25, syntaxin 1, and VAMP1 immunoreactivities were detected in terminal parts of calretinin-immunoreactive endings, whereas VAMP2 immunoreactivity was only observed in a few terminals. Terminal parts immunoreactive for calretinin and/or VGLUT1 also exhibited immunoreactivities for Syt1, Ca2+ sensor for membrane trafficking, and for bassoon and piccolo, presynaptic scaffold proteins. The presence of vesicular release-related proteins, including SNARE proteins, in the terminals of laryngeal laminar endings indicate that intrinsic glutamate modulates their afferent activity in an autocrine-like manner.

Morphology of P2X3-immunoreactive basket-like afferent nerve endings surrounding serosal ganglia and close relationship with vesicular nucleotide transporter-immunoreactive nerve fibers in the rat gastric antrum.

We previously reported P2X3 purinoceptor (P2X3)-expressing vagal afferent nerve endings with large web-like structures in the subserosal tissue of the antral lesser curvature, suggesting that these nerve endings were one of the vagal mechanoreceptors. The present study investigated the morphological relationship between P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings and serosal ganglia in the rat gastric antrum by immunohistochemistry of whole-mount preparations using confocal scanning laser microscopy. P2X3-immunoreactive basket-like subserosal nerve endings with new morphology were distributed laterally to the gastric sling muscles in the distal antrum of the lesser curvature. Parent axons ramified into numerous nerve fibers with pleomorphic flattened structures to form basket-like nerve endings, and the parent axons were originated from large net-like structures of vagal afferent nerve endings. Basket-like nerve endings wrapped around the whole serosal ganglia, which were characterized by neurofilament 200 kDa-immunoreactive neurons with or without neuronal nitric oxide synthase immunoreactivity and S100B-immunoreactive glial cells. Furthermore, basket-like nerve endings were localized in close apposition to dopamine beta-hydroxylase-immunoreactive sympathetic nerve fibers immunoreactive for vesicular nucleotide transporter. These results suggest that P2X3-immunoreactive basket-like nerve endings associated with serosal ganglia are the specialized ending structures of vagal subserosal mechanoreceptors in order to increase the sensitivity during antral peristalsis, and are activated by ATP from sympathetic nerve fibers and/or serosal ganglia for the regulation of mechanoreceptor function.

Morphology of GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells in the nasal cavity and pharynx of the rat.

Solitary chemosensory cells and chemosensory cell clusters are distributed in the pharynx and larynx. In the present study, the morphology and reflexogenic function of solitary chemosensory cells and chemosensory cell clusters in the nasal cavity and pharynx were examined using immunofluorescence for GNAT3 and electrophysiology. In the nasal cavity, GNAT3-immunoreactive solitary chemosensory cells were widely distributed in the nasal mucosa, particularly in the cranial region near the nostrils. Solitary chemosensory cells were also observed in the nasopharynx. Solitary chemosensory cells in the nasopharyngeal cavity were barrel like or slender in shape with long lateral processes within the epithelial layer to attach surrounding ciliated epithelial cells. Chemosensory cell clusters containing GNAT3-immunoreactive cells were also detected in the pharynx. GNAT3-immunoreactive cells gathered with SNAP25-immunoreactive cells in chemosensory clusters. GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells were in close contact with a few SP- or CGRP-immunoreactive nerve endings. In the pharynx, GNAT3-immunoreactive chemosensory cells were also attached to P2X3-immunoreactive nerve endings. Physiologically, the perfusion of 10 mM quinine hydrochloride (QHCl) solution induced ventilatory depression. The QHCl-induced reflex was diminished by bilateral section of the glossopharyngeal nerve, suggesting autonomic reflex were evoked by chemosensory cells in pharynx but not in nasal mucosa. The present results indicate that complex shape of nasopharyngeal solitary chemosensory cells may contribute to intercellular communication, and pharyngeal chemosensory cells may play a role in respiratory depression.

GluN2A- and GluN2B-immunoreactive type I cells attached to vesicular glutamate transporter 2-immunoreactive afferent nerve terminals of the rat carotid body.

We previously reported the immunoreactivity for the vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) in afferent nerve terminals attached to chemoreceptor type I cells of the carotid body (CB), suggesting that glutamate is released from afferent terminals to stimulate these cells. In the present study, we examined the immunoreactivity for the glutamate-binding subunits of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, GluN2A and GluN2B in the rat CB, and the immunohistochemical relationships between these subunits and VGLUT2. Immunoreactivities for GluN2A and GluN2B were predominant in a subpopulation of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive type I cells rather than those of dopamine beta-hydroxylase-immunoreactive cells. Punctate VGLUT2-immunoreactive products were attached to GluN2A- and GluN2B-immunoreactive type I cells. Bassoon-immunoreactive products were localized between VGLUT2-immunoreactive puncta and type I cells immunoreactive for GluN2A and GluN2B. These results suggest that afferent nerve terminals release glutamate by exocytosis to modulate chemosensory activity of a subpopulation of type I cells via GluN2A- and GluN2B subunits-containing NMDA receptors.